Since the end of World War II, war memorials have been installed throughout the world. They have been sponsored by all of the participant nations who engaged in the conflict, as well as by a number of private groups and individuals. Each nation has grappled with questions of what specific aspects of the war to memorialize and how such memorialization should be represented. The complex nature of the conflict itself has led to complexity in the types of memorials that have been developed. Traditional forms celebrating victory and triumph coexist with spaces that mark the war’s great horrors—events that do not easily sit within the conventional memorialization tradition.
Through the discussion of World War II memorials that follows, we will trace some of the major events of the war that have since been memorialized across Europe and in Japan, including the Holocaust, D-Day, and the deployment of the atom bomb. We will end with an examination of the National World War II Memorial in Washington, D.C., in order to understand the American vision of its own participation in war. As we will see, honoring the memory of World War II has led the tradition of memorializing into new and unchartered directions.
SELECTED WORK: Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe Peter Eisenman, 2005, Berlin, Germany
Peter Eisenman—Biography and Career
Peter Eisenman is an impressively educated American architect who has designed a wide range of groundbreaking projects, including residential, educational, and urban plans. His ability to push the boundaries of what architecture can be is made evident in his efforts in the realm of creating memorials as well. His Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe is centrally important to the history of the memorial in general, and Holocaust and World War II memorialization in particular.
Peter Eisenman is an impressively educated American architect who has designed a wide range of groundbreaking projects, including residential, educational, and urban plans. His ability to push the boundaries of what architecture can be is made evident in his efforts in the realm of creating memorials as well. His Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe is centrally important to the history of the memorial in general, and Holocaust and World War II memorialization in particular.
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe—Analysis
Holocaust memorialization has been a particularly fraught issue. How is it possible to adequately commemorate an almost inconceivable event? Holocaust memorials tend to function in an even more expansive way than general war memorials do. In addition to honoring memory and recognizing the dead, these memorials may also function as educational centers. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., states that as “a living memorial to the Holocaust, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum inspires citizens and leaders worldwide to confront hatred, prevent genocide, and promote human dignity.” Institutions like these are dedicated not only to memorializing the Holocaust, but also to serving as the conscience of the world and ensuring that such events are never allowed to occur again.
Holocaust memorialization has been a particularly fraught issue. How is it possible to adequately commemorate an almost inconceivable event? Holocaust memorials tend to function in an even more expansive way than general war memorials do. In addition to honoring memory and recognizing the dead, these memorials may also function as educational centers. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., states that as “a living memorial to the Holocaust, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum inspires citizens and leaders worldwide to confront hatred, prevent genocide, and promote human dignity.” Institutions like these are dedicated not only to memorializing the Holocaust, but also to serving as the conscience of the world and ensuring that such events are never allowed to occur again.
The Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe is the official German memorial honoring the Jewish victims of the Holocaust. The memorial consists of a subterranean Information Center, which provides historical documentation of the events of the Holocaust, as well as Eisenman’s installation, generally referred to as the Field of Stelae. A stela is an upright stone slab or column typically bearing a commemorative inscription or relief design. Stelae have been used to memorialize in many cultures.
The Field of Stelae includes 2,711 concrete slabs set in a grid pattern and arrayed on a sloping site of approximately 4.7 acres. The stelae are organized into rows, 54 in the north-south direction and 87 in the east-west orientation. The stelae measure 7'10" in length and 3' 1" in width. They vary in height, from 7.9" to 15'9", as they lie across the irregular ground, which is itself tiled with concrete paving stones. The field is totally open on all four sides, and visitors are able to walk freely through the arrangement of concrete forms.
Approval of the proposed memorial and designation of the site were secured on June 25, 1999, and the ground was formally broken on January 27, 2000. It was not until December 15, 2004 that the final stela was ceremonially placed, with the official dedication of the memorial occurring on May 10, 2005. The site officially opened to the public on May 12, 2005.
The success of the project is clear from the thousands of visitors that come to the memorial every year. In addition, it has won several honors. Clearly, Eisenman’s memorial architecture is considered to be of great historical significance. As we will see, its simplicity and formal abstraction contrast greatly with other memorial projects under discussion here, particularly the examples in Japan and the United States.
SELECTED WORK: Memorial of Caen, 1988 Caen, France
D-Day and the Allied Landings at Normandy
“D-Day” refers to the first day of the Invasion of Normandy, June 6, 1944. The military operations that followed the initial invasion are more broadly known as the Invasion of Normandy. The landings were codenamed Operation Neptune, as the troops, like the Roman god, landed from the sea. D-Day constituted the largest invasion by sea in history and was instrumental in liberating northwestern Europe from Nazi occupation. It was a major turning point in the war and helped lead the Allies to ultimate victory.
“D-Day” refers to the first day of the Invasion of Normandy, June 6, 1944. The military operations that followed the initial invasion are more broadly known as the Invasion of Normandy. The landings were codenamed Operation Neptune, as the troops, like the Roman god, landed from the sea. D-Day constituted the largest invasion by sea in history and was instrumental in liberating northwestern Europe from Nazi occupation. It was a major turning point in the war and helped lead the Allies to ultimate victory.
The water landings were preceded by a massive aerial assault. The landing of 24,000 American, British, and Canadian airborne troops began shortly after midnight, and was followed by the infantry and armored divisions, which began landing at approximately 6:30 am. The stretch of French coast targeted for the invasion was approximately 50 miles in length. Under the invasion plan, the coast was divided into five sectors—Omaha, Utah, Juno, Gold, and Sword Beaches. The attack was incredibly difficult, with troops struggling against strong winds and heavy gunfire from German troops stationed above the beaches. Thousands died, on both the Allied and the Axis sides.
Today, many historical markers and monuments dot the coast of Normandy—memorializing the events of D-Day and the subsequent military actions in the region. The beaches themselves have become tourist destinations, while a number of museums and cemeteries have been established nearby. Our focus here will be on the Memorial at Caen, which incorporates a variety of elements dedicated to memorializing the critical events of the Invasion of Normandy.
Memorial of Caen—Analysis
The Memorial of Caen is a museum and war memorial located in Caen, Normandy. It commemorates World War II and specifically the Invasion of Normandy and the Battle for Caen. The museum building was designed by Jacques Millet. It was formally opened to the public on the 44th anniversary of D-Day, on June 6, 1988. The memorial houses a collection with extensive archives—photographs, films, posters, as well as military equipment and other objects directly associated with the war. Daily tours to the D-Day Landing beaches and a variety of educational programs are also available to visitors.
The Memorial of Caen is a museum and war memorial located in Caen, Normandy. It commemorates World War II and specifically the Invasion of Normandy and the Battle for Caen. The museum building was designed by Jacques Millet. It was formally opened to the public on the 44th anniversary of D-Day, on June 6, 1988. The memorial houses a collection with extensive archives—photographs, films, posters, as well as military equipment and other objects directly associated with the war. Daily tours to the D-Day Landing beaches and a variety of educational programs are also available to visitors.
The image of the memorial in your Art Reproductions Booklet shows the main museum building, which is a stern, simple block form. A massive rectangle sheathed in warmly colored stone, the building appears to be split at the center—a notched area cut out provides the main entrance to the structure. In front of the building we see a broad plaza, simply paved, with only a series of low stairs to break its horizontal plane. A series of tall flagpoles flanks the entrance area, noting the combatant nations of World War II.
The Caen memorial also includes elaborate landscaping—sections of which are known as the Souvenir Gardens and which are devoted to the memory of Resistance fighters and Allied soldiers who died in Normandy. The Souvenir Gardens were inaugurated in 1988 when the Israeli President planted a single tree as a symbol of life. New gardens and commemorative sites throughout the memorial grounds have been established since, including the American Garden, which was officially opened in 1994, on the fifty-year anniversary of the liberation of Europe. This garden includes a central fountain as well as plaques dedicated each of the 50 American states. In 1995, the Canadian Support Committee dedicated a garden space, which was designed by 12 students of architecture from the universities of Montreal and Ottawa. The British Garden, dedicated in 2004 by Prince Charles of Great Britain, includes a number of sculptures honoring the British military forces that participated in the Invasion of Normandy, including the Royal Air force and the Royal Navy. They are represented by cypress trees planted alongside a row of columns.
Through its displays and programming, the Memorial at Caen serves as a way to honor the events of World War II, but like the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., the mission is much broader. As the introductory material on the memorial’s website notes, “We are all heirs to this century whose memory we must keep alive at all costs. The memory of the people who suffered, the memory of ideas and the memory of sacrifices to save us from “man’s inhumanity to man.” Through memorializing the events of World War II, the Caen Memorial hopes to help prevent all such conflict in the future.
SELECTED WORK: The Hiroshima Peace Memorial, 1966 Hiroshima, Japan
The Atom Bombs and Japan’s Recovery After WWII
The first atom bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. In Hiroshima, an estimated 140,000 people were killed while approximately 74,000 were killed in Nagasaki three days later—these estimates include both immediate and near-term deaths resulting from the bombs. Over the months following the attacks, tens of thousands of people perished, succumbing to radiation poisoning. We no doubt will never know the final death toll, and the many innumerable deaths due to cancers and other diseases that resulted from the effects of the bombs.
The first atom bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. In Hiroshima, an estimated 140,000 people were killed while approximately 74,000 were killed in Nagasaki three days later—these estimates include both immediate and near-term deaths resulting from the bombs. Over the months following the attacks, tens of thousands of people perished, succumbing to radiation poisoning. We no doubt will never know the final death toll, and the many innumerable deaths due to cancers and other diseases that resulted from the effects of the bombs.
The first trial bomb was deployed in the desert on July 16, 1945. Its success led President Harry Truman to sign the Executive Order authorizing the bombings in Japan. Truman was convinced that only a demonstration of military power on such a tremendous scale would finally end the war. It was assumed that such an attack would force an immediate surrender and would save the countless Allied and Japanese lives that would have been lost in a ground war invasion. In the end, the Japanese surrendered just days after the Nagasaki bombing. The amazing devastation wrought by the bombings—the dramatically ravaged landscape and the horrible human suffering—have thus far ensured that these attacks have been the only nuclear strikes in history.
After the end of the war and Japan’s surrender in 1945, Japan was occupied by Allied forces for several years. During that period, the country was transformed into a democratic government via numerous political, military, economic, and social reforms. These reforms were intended to stabilize Japan, while ensuring that it would be incapable of militarizing itself easily in the future. Once Japan was seen to be stable (and even more importantly, non-threatening), efforts were made to end the occupation. Occupation formally ended on April 28, 1952, with the signing of the San Francisco Treaty. This agreement allowed the U.S. to retain its military bases in the country but gave Japan its ultimate freedom, allowing the country to become fully self-sufficient and independent.
The Hiroshima Peace Memorial—Analysis
The Hiroshima Peace Memorial is a particularly dramatic example of World War II memorialization. The memorial, also known as the Atomic Bomb Dome, is a preserved ruin that sits in what is now known as Peace Memorial Park. It serves as a memorial to the tens of thousands of people who died in the nuclear attacks. The four-story brick and concrete building, with its large, distinctive dome, was originally constructed in 1915 to be used for arts and educational exhibitions.
The Hiroshima Peace Memorial is a particularly dramatic example of World War II memorialization. The memorial, also known as the Atomic Bomb Dome, is a preserved ruin that sits in what is now known as Peace Memorial Park. It serves as a memorial to the tens of thousands of people who died in the nuclear attacks. The four-story brick and concrete building, with its large, distinctive dome, was originally constructed in 1915 to be used for arts and educational exhibitions.
The building was the only structure left standing near the epicenter of the bomb detonation. Because the bomb exploded directly above it, the building’s vertical columns were able to withstand the vertical downward thrust of the blast, and much of the basic shape of the structure was preserved. Most hauntingly, the metal skeletal framework of the dome remained fully intact. The dome quickly became known as the “A-Bomb” (Genbaku) dome, and it immediately inspired heated debate—should it be removed or preserved for posterity? Ultimately, the community decided to leave the structure, such as it was, intact. After the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park was established on the grounds around the building, the city resolved to permanently preserve the dome in 1966. The dome was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1999. Today it survives as a direct, physical testament to one of the most destructive and controversial events of World War II.
SELECTED WORK: National WWII Memorial, 2004 Washington, D.C.
War Memorialization on the National Mall
The National Mall in Washington, D.C., serves as the preeminent memorial space in America. This national park is situated in the center of the nation’s capital and encompasses the long rectangular area between the Lincoln Memorial and the U.S. Capitol building. The plan for the park as it exists today was conceived in 1901 under the Senate Park Commission. The McMillan Plan, so named after the commission’s chairman, Senator James McMillan of Michigan, called for the removal of all existing gardens, trees, and structures on the site, in favor of the vast open space that we see today. Since 1966, the National Mall has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The National Mall in Washington, D.C., serves as the preeminent memorial space in America. This national park is situated in the center of the nation’s capital and encompasses the long rectangular area between the Lincoln Memorial and the U.S. Capitol building. The plan for the park as it exists today was conceived in 1901 under the Senate Park Commission. The McMillan Plan, so named after the commission’s chairman, Senator James McMillan of Michigan, called for the removal of all existing gardens, trees, and structures on the site, in favor of the vast open space that we see today. Since 1966, the National Mall has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The National Mall welcomes approximately 24 million visitors each year. Tourists come to enjoy the major monuments on the Mall, including the Washington Monument, the Lincoln Memorial, the Thomas Jefferson Memorial, and the Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial. The Mall provides an appropriately dignified and monumental space for major national buildings and memorials. It also provides a powerful setting for political rallies and protests as well as presidential inaugural events. Finally, as a beautiful open space, it serves as an area for recreation and picnicking. The National Mall truly functions as “America’s Front Yard.”
The National Mall includes several war memorial structures. In addition to the National World War II Memorial we will discuss here, the Korean War Veterans Memorial, the District of Columbia War Memorial (commemorating World War I), and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial are all found on the site. Here in the heart of the nation, it is important to consider which military conflicts are honored and how those events are observed. Such monuments communicate clear propagandistic messages about the United States—what the nation considers important to both fight for and to remember. Understanding the war memorial installations on the Mall can help us to better understand U.S. history, as well as the vision we have of America’s future.
National WWII Memorial—Analysis
The National WWII Memorial is the only monument on the Washington Mall’s central axis that commemorates an event of the twentieth century. As the memorial’s website notes, the site “honors the 16 million who served in the armed forces of the U.S., the more than 400,000 who died, and all who supported the war effort from home,” and functions as a “monument to the spirit, sacrifice, and commitment of the American people.”
The National WWII Memorial is the only monument on the Washington Mall’s central axis that commemorates an event of the twentieth century. As the memorial’s website notes, the site “honors the 16 million who served in the armed forces of the U.S., the more than 400,000 who died, and all who supported the war effort from home,” and functions as a “monument to the spirit, sacrifice, and commitment of the American people.”
The memorial’s 56 granite pillars are 17 feet tall while the two arches, which are placed directly across from each other, reach a height of 43 feet. The pillars and arches are arranged in a semicircular configuration around a large central oval plaza and fountain. Each pillar is inscribed with a single name—those of the 48 U.S. states of 1945, the District of Columbia, the Alaska Territory, the Territory of Hawaii, the Commonwealth of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands—and is adorned with a bronze wreath. The triumphal arch placed at the northern end of the site is marked by the word “Atlantic” while the southern arch displays “Pacific.” These markings note the major theaters of the war.
Seen from outside the plaza area and on the eastern side of the monument, walls of relief sculptures illustrate various scenes of the war, including everything from soldiers taking their initial oath of service, to combat images, to homecoming scenes. On the western exterior, the so-called Freedom Wall displays 4,048 gold stars, each of which represents a hundred Americans who died in the war. Inscribed in front of the wall is the text, “Here we mark the price of freedom.”
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The memorial is located on 17th Street, between Constitution and Independence Avenues. It is flanked by the Washington Monument to the east and the Lincoln Memorial to the west. Dedicated by President George W. Bush, the memorial is operated by the National Park Service and is open at all times to visitors. It serves as an important reminder of the country’s sacrifices during World War II and particularly highlights the national scope of the conflict. As it touched all states and territories, the war was a significant national event. By honoring those who supported, served, and died, the memorial functions as a symbol of American unity and power—a strongly propagandistic and uplifting message for a memorial dedicated to one of the most traumatic events in the nation’s history.