Two-dimensional Processes & Techniques
Two-dimensional art processes and techniques are those that are created on a flat plane. They have height and width, but not significant depth. These include drawing, printmaking, painting, photography, and some mixed media.
Two-dimensional art processes and techniques are those that are created on a flat plane. They have height and width, but not significant depth. These include drawing, printmaking, painting, photography, and some mixed media.
Drawing
Drawing is arguably the most basic of art processes. Most of us have been drawing since we could hold a tool and make marks on a surface. The most common drawing media are pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, crayon, and felt-tip pens. Artists can choose from a variety of surfaces upon which to draw. Early artists used walls of rock, and though some artists today continue to draw on walls, most use some kind of paper—from the white paper of common sketchbooks to a wide variety of manufactured and handmade papers. Papers may be smooth or rough, white or in a wide range of colors. Drawing tools may be black, colored, or white.
Drawing is primarily based on the use of line. Lines created by drawing media can vary dramatically in quality. Hard pencils will make thin, light lines while soft pencils will make thicker lines that may vary considerably in value from lighter to very dark. Charcoal is so soft that the color of the paper used will show through in places where the strokes are applied lightly. Each drawing tool or medium has its own unique qualities, and experimenting with a variety of drawing media is a good way to gain an understanding of their similarities and differences.
With drawing pencils or charcoals, a change in pressure will cause a change in value. More pressure creates darker values; lighter pressure creates lighter values. Shading can also be used to change values. Artists use the techniques of hatching and crosshatching to shade objects and create an illusion of depth. Hatching consists of placing lines closely side by side. Crosshatching is a process in which lines are crisscrossed to create shading. Many drawing media can be blended to change their value and enhance shading. Another technique for shading is stippling. With this technique, the artist creates different values by making a pattern of dots. The distance between the dots determines how dark the shading will be—the more densely clustered the dots, the darker the shading.
Color may be introduced into a drawing with the use of pastels or colored pencils. The same techniques used with black media are used with colored media. The artist using color must consider the effects of color and line in an artwork. Colored pastels became popular in the 1700s. These soft sticks of color can be readily blended to create delicate tints and shades, and they are particularly popular for portraiture. The major drawback of pastels is that they are very fragile, and pastel drawings must be cared for quite gently. Often, the surface of a pastel drawing is sprayed with a fixative to reduce the risk of smearing. Colored pencils are more durable than pastels, and like pastels, they may be
layered to create blended colors.
Drawing is arguably the most basic of art processes. Most of us have been drawing since we could hold a tool and make marks on a surface. The most common drawing media are pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, crayon, and felt-tip pens. Artists can choose from a variety of surfaces upon which to draw. Early artists used walls of rock, and though some artists today continue to draw on walls, most use some kind of paper—from the white paper of common sketchbooks to a wide variety of manufactured and handmade papers. Papers may be smooth or rough, white or in a wide range of colors. Drawing tools may be black, colored, or white.
Drawing is primarily based on the use of line. Lines created by drawing media can vary dramatically in quality. Hard pencils will make thin, light lines while soft pencils will make thicker lines that may vary considerably in value from lighter to very dark. Charcoal is so soft that the color of the paper used will show through in places where the strokes are applied lightly. Each drawing tool or medium has its own unique qualities, and experimenting with a variety of drawing media is a good way to gain an understanding of their similarities and differences.
With drawing pencils or charcoals, a change in pressure will cause a change in value. More pressure creates darker values; lighter pressure creates lighter values. Shading can also be used to change values. Artists use the techniques of hatching and crosshatching to shade objects and create an illusion of depth. Hatching consists of placing lines closely side by side. Crosshatching is a process in which lines are crisscrossed to create shading. Many drawing media can be blended to change their value and enhance shading. Another technique for shading is stippling. With this technique, the artist creates different values by making a pattern of dots. The distance between the dots determines how dark the shading will be—the more densely clustered the dots, the darker the shading.
Color may be introduced into a drawing with the use of pastels or colored pencils. The same techniques used with black media are used with colored media. The artist using color must consider the effects of color and line in an artwork. Colored pastels became popular in the 1700s. These soft sticks of color can be readily blended to create delicate tints and shades, and they are particularly popular for portraiture. The major drawback of pastels is that they are very fragile, and pastel drawings must be cared for quite gently. Often, the surface of a pastel drawing is sprayed with a fixative to reduce the risk of smearing. Colored pencils are more durable than pastels, and like pastels, they may be
layered to create blended colors.
Printmaking
Printmaking refers to a group of mechanically aided two-dimensional processes that permit the production of multiple original artworks. The principal printmaking processes include relief prints, intaglio prints, lithographs, and screen prints. All of these processes use some sort of matrix, or printing plate, on which an image is created. Ink is applied to the plate, and the image is transferred to paper or another material.
In relief printmaking, the artist cuts away parts from the surface of the plate. The matrix may be made of wood, linoleum, or a synthetic material, and a number of tools, including woodcarving or linoleum knives and gouges, can be used for cutting its surface. Once the plate has been cut, the remaining parts or sections may range from thin lines to broad fields, and it is these areas, when they are inked, that will produce the image. Wherever part of the plate is removed, the original color of the paper being printed upon remains.
Intaglio printmaking works in the opposite manner from relief printmaking. In the intaglio process, lines are incised on the wood or soft metal plate. Carving tools are used to cut lines into the surface of the plate by engraving, or lines can be formed by etching. In etching, the design is incised through a layer of wax or varnish applied to the surface of a metal plate. After the incising, the plate is immersed in acid, which etches, or eats away, the exposed metal. Leaving the plate in the acid for a shorter time will make faint lines in the plate, while leaving the plate in for a longer time will make deeper grooves. After the plate is etched, the remaining wax or varnish is removed, and ink is forced into the etched areas of the warmed plate. Then, the ink on the surface of the plate is wiped off, and finally, paper is placed on the plate, and it is passed through a heavy press. The paper is forced into the etched, inked areas, and the ink transfers to the paper. In an etching, the printing process causes the printed areas to actually rise above the surface of the paper, giving a degree of dimension to the print.
Lithography is a process in which the image is drawn with a waxy pencil or crayon directly on a plate, which can be made of stone, zinc, or aluminum. The greasy image is hardened, and the plate is saturated with water. Then, ink is applied. The ink adheres only to the greasy image since oil resists water. The image is picked up on the paper when the plate is moved through a press. Lithography can be a complex and demanding process, but it does not require special professional training; anyone who can draw can make a lithograph.
Screen prints are familiar to most of us since this is the process used to print most T-shirts. In the silk-screening process, a photograph or other image is transferred or adhered to a silk or synthetic fabric that has been stretched onto a frame. The image serves as a sort of stencil, blocking out areas of the permeable fabric. When ink is forced through the fabric using a squeegee, at those areas not blocked by the stenciling, the image is transferred to the paper or fabric beneath. Because multiple originals can be made through printmaking processes, the cost of an individual print is considerably less than that of a painting. Printmaking techniques have been used in the print industry for illustrating newspapers and books since the development of the printing press in the fifteenth century.
Printmaking refers to a group of mechanically aided two-dimensional processes that permit the production of multiple original artworks. The principal printmaking processes include relief prints, intaglio prints, lithographs, and screen prints. All of these processes use some sort of matrix, or printing plate, on which an image is created. Ink is applied to the plate, and the image is transferred to paper or another material.
In relief printmaking, the artist cuts away parts from the surface of the plate. The matrix may be made of wood, linoleum, or a synthetic material, and a number of tools, including woodcarving or linoleum knives and gouges, can be used for cutting its surface. Once the plate has been cut, the remaining parts or sections may range from thin lines to broad fields, and it is these areas, when they are inked, that will produce the image. Wherever part of the plate is removed, the original color of the paper being printed upon remains.
Intaglio printmaking works in the opposite manner from relief printmaking. In the intaglio process, lines are incised on the wood or soft metal plate. Carving tools are used to cut lines into the surface of the plate by engraving, or lines can be formed by etching. In etching, the design is incised through a layer of wax or varnish applied to the surface of a metal plate. After the incising, the plate is immersed in acid, which etches, or eats away, the exposed metal. Leaving the plate in the acid for a shorter time will make faint lines in the plate, while leaving the plate in for a longer time will make deeper grooves. After the plate is etched, the remaining wax or varnish is removed, and ink is forced into the etched areas of the warmed plate. Then, the ink on the surface of the plate is wiped off, and finally, paper is placed on the plate, and it is passed through a heavy press. The paper is forced into the etched, inked areas, and the ink transfers to the paper. In an etching, the printing process causes the printed areas to actually rise above the surface of the paper, giving a degree of dimension to the print.
Lithography is a process in which the image is drawn with a waxy pencil or crayon directly on a plate, which can be made of stone, zinc, or aluminum. The greasy image is hardened, and the plate is saturated with water. Then, ink is applied. The ink adheres only to the greasy image since oil resists water. The image is picked up on the paper when the plate is moved through a press. Lithography can be a complex and demanding process, but it does not require special professional training; anyone who can draw can make a lithograph.
Screen prints are familiar to most of us since this is the process used to print most T-shirts. In the silk-screening process, a photograph or other image is transferred or adhered to a silk or synthetic fabric that has been stretched onto a frame. The image serves as a sort of stencil, blocking out areas of the permeable fabric. When ink is forced through the fabric using a squeegee, at those areas not blocked by the stenciling, the image is transferred to the paper or fabric beneath. Because multiple originals can be made through printmaking processes, the cost of an individual print is considerably less than that of a painting. Printmaking techniques have been used in the print industry for illustrating newspapers and books since the development of the printing press in the fifteenth century.
Fresco
Gouache
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Tempura
Watercolors
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Oil paints
Acrylic paints
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Painting
Painting encompasses a wide variety of media and techniques. Paint is usually composed of three different materials: pigments, binders, and solvents. Pigments are finely ground materials that may be natural or synthetic. Natural pigments include clays, gemstones, and minerals, as well as plant and insect materials that make color when powdered. These powdered pigments are mixed with a binder that holds the grains of pigment together and allows the paint to adhere to a surface. Egg yolks, linseed oil, and wax can all be used as binders.
A solvent such as water or oil can be added to change the consistency of the paint or alter its drying time. As with drawing, painters can apply the media to a variety of surfaces such as boards, paper, canvas, and plaster walls. Paint can be applied to a surface with many different tools. We usually think of paintbrushes as the tools used to apply paint, but fingers, sticks, palette knives, and anything else that an artist imagines will make the desired kind of applicator may be used.
One specialized technique of painting that has a long history is the fresco. The fresco technique is usually used to paint on walls or ceilings. In creating a fresco, the artist mixes pure powdered pigments with water and applies them to a wet plaster ground. The paint is permanently bound in the plaster, so the artist must plan carefully because he or she will not be able to make changes after the fact. This kind of fresco is termed buon fresco (“true” fresco). If an artist uses the technique called fresco secco, he or she will apply paints to dry rather than wet plaster.
When we think of painting, oil painting usually comes to mind first. Oil paints were not widely used until the 1400s, and prior to that time, tempera was the most commonly used paint. Tempera is a water-based paint. Many of us remember using tempera paint in elementary school. Traditional tempera paint, which uses egg as a binder, has been used by fine artists throughout history. Tempera painting requires great skill, and there are limitations to this medium. Tempera colors dry quickly, and so they cannot be blended once they are applied to a surface. Tempera also has a narrow tonal range— colors are either light or dark—and it cannot achieve the close imitation of natural effects that oil paints can. Nonetheless, the positive qualities of tempera are evidenced by the many ancient tempera paintings that still retain their clear and brilliant colors.
Oil paints are much more versatile than tempera paints. Oil paints can be easily mixed, and they may be thinned to build up layers of delicate glazes—thin transparent or semi-transparent layers that are applied over another color to change it slightly. The translucency of glazes permits, for instance, a crimson layer underneath to shine through a yellow layer on top and can thus create brilliant effects that are impossible to achieve with tempera. Since oils dry slowly, it is possible for an artist to work on an oil painting over a long period of time— days or even weeks.
Gouache is a water-based opaque paint that is similar to school-quality tempera, but of higher quality. Gouache has more body and dries more slowly than watercolor. It is a good medium for creating bright colors and details and is often used for design and fine artwork.
The most common water-based paint is watercolor. Watercolors are transparent, a quality that dictates the manner in which they are used. The white of the paper upon which the artist paints is a major factor in watercolor. White paint is rarely used in watercolors. Instead, to make tints, the artist adds more water to the paint. The lightest colors are applied first, and then the darker colors, working from the back to the front, from broader areas to areas of detail. Watercolor is not forgiving of mistakes, so watercolor artists must plan and create carefully.
A recent development in paint is acrylic paint. Made from synthetic materials, plastics, and polymers, acrylics were developed after World War II. Acrylics are very versatile. They are not like oils, which require the slow, careful building-up of successive layers with long drying periods in between. As a result, however, artists are not able to achieve the same level of detail as they do with oils paints. For artists who have developed allergies to oil paint and turpentine, acrylics offer a valuable alternative.
Painting encompasses a wide variety of media and techniques. Paint is usually composed of three different materials: pigments, binders, and solvents. Pigments are finely ground materials that may be natural or synthetic. Natural pigments include clays, gemstones, and minerals, as well as plant and insect materials that make color when powdered. These powdered pigments are mixed with a binder that holds the grains of pigment together and allows the paint to adhere to a surface. Egg yolks, linseed oil, and wax can all be used as binders.
A solvent such as water or oil can be added to change the consistency of the paint or alter its drying time. As with drawing, painters can apply the media to a variety of surfaces such as boards, paper, canvas, and plaster walls. Paint can be applied to a surface with many different tools. We usually think of paintbrushes as the tools used to apply paint, but fingers, sticks, palette knives, and anything else that an artist imagines will make the desired kind of applicator may be used.
One specialized technique of painting that has a long history is the fresco. The fresco technique is usually used to paint on walls or ceilings. In creating a fresco, the artist mixes pure powdered pigments with water and applies them to a wet plaster ground. The paint is permanently bound in the plaster, so the artist must plan carefully because he or she will not be able to make changes after the fact. This kind of fresco is termed buon fresco (“true” fresco). If an artist uses the technique called fresco secco, he or she will apply paints to dry rather than wet plaster.
When we think of painting, oil painting usually comes to mind first. Oil paints were not widely used until the 1400s, and prior to that time, tempera was the most commonly used paint. Tempera is a water-based paint. Many of us remember using tempera paint in elementary school. Traditional tempera paint, which uses egg as a binder, has been used by fine artists throughout history. Tempera painting requires great skill, and there are limitations to this medium. Tempera colors dry quickly, and so they cannot be blended once they are applied to a surface. Tempera also has a narrow tonal range— colors are either light or dark—and it cannot achieve the close imitation of natural effects that oil paints can. Nonetheless, the positive qualities of tempera are evidenced by the many ancient tempera paintings that still retain their clear and brilliant colors.
Oil paints are much more versatile than tempera paints. Oil paints can be easily mixed, and they may be thinned to build up layers of delicate glazes—thin transparent or semi-transparent layers that are applied over another color to change it slightly. The translucency of glazes permits, for instance, a crimson layer underneath to shine through a yellow layer on top and can thus create brilliant effects that are impossible to achieve with tempera. Since oils dry slowly, it is possible for an artist to work on an oil painting over a long period of time— days or even weeks.
Gouache is a water-based opaque paint that is similar to school-quality tempera, but of higher quality. Gouache has more body and dries more slowly than watercolor. It is a good medium for creating bright colors and details and is often used for design and fine artwork.
The most common water-based paint is watercolor. Watercolors are transparent, a quality that dictates the manner in which they are used. The white of the paper upon which the artist paints is a major factor in watercolor. White paint is rarely used in watercolors. Instead, to make tints, the artist adds more water to the paint. The lightest colors are applied first, and then the darker colors, working from the back to the front, from broader areas to areas of detail. Watercolor is not forgiving of mistakes, so watercolor artists must plan and create carefully.
A recent development in paint is acrylic paint. Made from synthetic materials, plastics, and polymers, acrylics were developed after World War II. Acrylics are very versatile. They are not like oils, which require the slow, careful building-up of successive layers with long drying periods in between. As a result, however, artists are not able to achieve the same level of detail as they do with oils paints. For artists who have developed allergies to oil paint and turpentine, acrylics offer a valuable alternative.
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Photography
Photography was developed during the mid-nineteenth century or around the 1850's, and it soon became a very popular way to document likenesses of people and scenes. The development of photography had a decided impact on other areas of art. As the use of photography grew, painters at first felt pressured to compete with the camera by making more realistic art. Ultimately, however, artists did not remain confined and were encouraged to explore forms of art that were beyond the reach of photography. Although not originally considered an art form, photography gradually joined the art world and has only grown in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The medium of photography often changes because of frequent technological advances. In addition to still photography, film and video art are also used as art forms.
Photography was developed during the mid-nineteenth century or around the 1850's, and it soon became a very popular way to document likenesses of people and scenes. The development of photography had a decided impact on other areas of art. As the use of photography grew, painters at first felt pressured to compete with the camera by making more realistic art. Ultimately, however, artists did not remain confined and were encouraged to explore forms of art that were beyond the reach of photography. Although not originally considered an art form, photography gradually joined the art world and has only grown in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The medium of photography often changes because of frequent technological advances. In addition to still photography, film and video art are also used as art forms.