Definitions
The broadest definition of music is “sound organized in time.” Many kinds of sounds—including noises and tones produced by any means, not only by musical instruments—can be used to create music, particularly in the modern era. All that is required is a time frame, sound waves, and an aware mind to recognize and interpret those sounds. Common but not required factors include a person (often called a composer) who first imagines the music, a person or instrument to generate the sounds, and a means of recording and reproducing them. Sometimes the composition and performance happen at the same time (often as improvisation, but sometimes via electronic composition).
The broadest definition of music is “sound organized in time.” Many kinds of sounds—including noises and tones produced by any means, not only by musical instruments—can be used to create music, particularly in the modern era. All that is required is a time frame, sound waves, and an aware mind to recognize and interpret those sounds. Common but not required factors include a person (often called a composer) who first imagines the music, a person or instrument to generate the sounds, and a means of recording and reproducing them. Sometimes the composition and performance happen at the same time (often as improvisation, but sometimes via electronic composition).
Music of the Western World
It should be noted that many cultures have significantly different views of music. In some cultures, music is so interconnected with ritual, language, dance, and other aspects of life that in some languages there is no separate word for “music.” At certain times in history, Western traditions have encountered and incorporated the music of non-Western cultures. And, in recent decades, globalization has made the boundaries between Western and non-Western culture increasingly permeable. Nonetheless, the material in this guide will pertain to what is called the “music of the Western World”— the musical traditions that developed in Europe in the past two millennia and their cultural extensions in the Americas.
It should be noted that many cultures have significantly different views of music. In some cultures, music is so interconnected with ritual, language, dance, and other aspects of life that in some languages there is no separate word for “music.” At certain times in history, Western traditions have encountered and incorporated the music of non-Western cultures. And, in recent decades, globalization has made the boundaries between Western and non-Western culture increasingly permeable. Nonetheless, the material in this guide will pertain to what is called the “music of the Western World”— the musical traditions that developed in Europe in the past two millennia and their cultural extensions in the Americas.
Instruments as Sound Sources
How is a musical sound wave produced? In the late nineteenth century, two ethnomusicologists (the modern term for scholars who study the music of other cultures, or who study multiple cultures comparatively), Curt Sachs and Erich von Hornbostel, categorized instruments into four groups. Chordophones, such as violins, harps, and guitars, have one or more strings, which are plucked, bowed, or struck; the vibrating string creates the sound wave. Aerophones (brass and wind instruments such as the many varieties of horns and flutes) feature a vibrating column of air. Membranophones have a skin or other membrane stretched across some kind of frame. The membrane, but not the frame, vibrates when struck. With idiophones, the body of the instrument itself vibrates when struck. Some examples of idiophones are bells, woodblocks, and xylophones. A fifth category was added later: electrophones, which create sound waves using a mechanical device known as an oscillator and are dependent upon electricity.
Centuries before Sachs and Hornbostel, Western orchestral instruments were grouped into “families.” These categories are still used for Western instruments today. Strings or stringed instruments are usually bowed or plucked. Brass instruments, which are aerophones made of metal, are sounded by the performer’s buzzing lips, which make the column of air vibrate. Woodwind instruments are also aerophones in which the column of air is moved by breath alone—as in the case of flutes, recorders, and related instruments—or by one or two vibrating reeds usually made from wood. Percussion instruments include membranophones as well as idiophones, plus some chordophones that are struck rather than bowed or plucked, such as the piano. In some cases, keyboard instruments constitute a fifth category. Table 1 lists the most common members of each family of instruments.
How is a musical sound wave produced? In the late nineteenth century, two ethnomusicologists (the modern term for scholars who study the music of other cultures, or who study multiple cultures comparatively), Curt Sachs and Erich von Hornbostel, categorized instruments into four groups. Chordophones, such as violins, harps, and guitars, have one or more strings, which are plucked, bowed, or struck; the vibrating string creates the sound wave. Aerophones (brass and wind instruments such as the many varieties of horns and flutes) feature a vibrating column of air. Membranophones have a skin or other membrane stretched across some kind of frame. The membrane, but not the frame, vibrates when struck. With idiophones, the body of the instrument itself vibrates when struck. Some examples of idiophones are bells, woodblocks, and xylophones. A fifth category was added later: electrophones, which create sound waves using a mechanical device known as an oscillator and are dependent upon electricity.
Centuries before Sachs and Hornbostel, Western orchestral instruments were grouped into “families.” These categories are still used for Western instruments today. Strings or stringed instruments are usually bowed or plucked. Brass instruments, which are aerophones made of metal, are sounded by the performer’s buzzing lips, which make the column of air vibrate. Woodwind instruments are also aerophones in which the column of air is moved by breath alone—as in the case of flutes, recorders, and related instruments—or by one or two vibrating reeds usually made from wood. Percussion instruments include membranophones as well as idiophones, plus some chordophones that are struck rather than bowed or plucked, such as the piano. In some cases, keyboard instruments constitute a fifth category. Table 1 lists the most common members of each family of instruments.
The first electronic instruments began to appear in the first decades of the twentieth century. The theremin is one of the best-known early electronic instruments and is still occasionally used today. When playing this instrument, the performer regulates frequency with one hand and amplitude with the other by disturbing the electrical fields that surround the protruding bars.
The next important step in electronic instruments came at the end of World War II. Enormous advances in electronics and radio technology had been made for wartime purposes, but after the war, many state-of-the-art studios were no longer needed for military purposes. Within a few years, scientists and composers began collaborating to make art with the new equipment. Electronically generated sounds and sounds produced by live instruments were recorded on tape, where they could be edited, manipulated, and mechanically recombined to form collages of sound that were “performed” via loudspeaker. This type of composition was first known as musique concrète; the term used is French due to the fact that the first practitioners were based in Paris. The basic techniques of tape music (later followed by more purely electronic music produced on computers) are looping and splicing, both of which permit compositions that cannot be reproduced by a human performer. Rome, Paris, Cologne, and New York City all had famous postwar centers for electronic music.
The next important step in electronic instruments came at the end of World War II. Enormous advances in electronics and radio technology had been made for wartime purposes, but after the war, many state-of-the-art studios were no longer needed for military purposes. Within a few years, scientists and composers began collaborating to make art with the new equipment. Electronically generated sounds and sounds produced by live instruments were recorded on tape, where they could be edited, manipulated, and mechanically recombined to form collages of sound that were “performed” via loudspeaker. This type of composition was first known as musique concrète; the term used is French due to the fact that the first practitioners were based in Paris. The basic techniques of tape music (later followed by more purely electronic music produced on computers) are looping and splicing, both of which permit compositions that cannot be reproduced by a human performer. Rome, Paris, Cologne, and New York City all had famous postwar centers for electronic music.
Properties of musical sounds
A single, isolated musical sound has four properties: pitch, duration, volume, and timbre. Pitch is the highness or lowness of a sound. A Chihuahua has a higher pitched bark than a St. Bernard; a kitten’s meow is higher pitched than a tomcat’s yowl. A tuba is pitched lower than a piccolo. When musicians speak of “a pitch,” they are referring to a single tone whose highness or lowness does not change. An octave is the musical term for the distance from one pitch, for example an A (at a frequency of 220 Hz), and the next higher A (at 440 Hz) or next lower A (at 110 Hz). As you can see, the frequency of the sound wave is higher as the pitch gets higher.
A single, isolated musical sound has four properties: pitch, duration, volume, and timbre. Pitch is the highness or lowness of a sound. A Chihuahua has a higher pitched bark than a St. Bernard; a kitten’s meow is higher pitched than a tomcat’s yowl. A tuba is pitched lower than a piccolo. When musicians speak of “a pitch,” they are referring to a single tone whose highness or lowness does not change. An octave is the musical term for the distance from one pitch, for example an A (at a frequency of 220 Hz), and the next higher A (at 440 Hz) or next lower A (at 110 Hz). As you can see, the frequency of the sound wave is higher as the pitch gets higher.
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Pitch on a Keyboard
A piano keyboard provides an excellent visual aid for understanding pitch and harmony. High-sounding pitches are to the right, low-sounding pitches are to the left. Therefore, moving from left to right is called moving “up” the keyboard, while moving from right to left is called moving “down.” Middle C is the white key found in the center of the keyboard. The black keys are arranged in alternating groups of two and three. Middle C is located to the left of the group of two black keys closest to the middle of the keyboard. Figure 1 identifies middle C, A440, A220, A110, and the names of the other keys on the keyboard. Note that all the As appear between the upper two of the three black keys on the keyboard. The distance between any two adjacent keys on the keyboard is called a half step, or semitone. A whole step is the distance between every other key (regardless of color, black or white). Both half steps and whole steps are the basic intervals of any scale (a sequence of pitches in ascending or descending order) in Western music. The white keys are usually called the natural keys, spanning seven alphabetical letters, A through G. The symbol that represents a natural note is ♮. (If the natural sign is omitted, musicians still assume the pitch is natural, but sometimes the symbol is included for clarification.) The signs # (sharp) and ♭(flat) indicate that a given pitch, such as A♮, has been raised or lowered, respectively, by a half step. So the next note to the right of A on the keyboard is A#. But, you can also look at that same A # key as being a lower neighbor of the key to its right—in other words, if you move a half step to the left from B♮, the same A # key can also be called B♭, since it is half a step (one key) below the B.
A piano keyboard provides an excellent visual aid for understanding pitch and harmony. High-sounding pitches are to the right, low-sounding pitches are to the left. Therefore, moving from left to right is called moving “up” the keyboard, while moving from right to left is called moving “down.” Middle C is the white key found in the center of the keyboard. The black keys are arranged in alternating groups of two and three. Middle C is located to the left of the group of two black keys closest to the middle of the keyboard. Figure 1 identifies middle C, A440, A220, A110, and the names of the other keys on the keyboard. Note that all the As appear between the upper two of the three black keys on the keyboard. The distance between any two adjacent keys on the keyboard is called a half step, or semitone. A whole step is the distance between every other key (regardless of color, black or white). Both half steps and whole steps are the basic intervals of any scale (a sequence of pitches in ascending or descending order) in Western music. The white keys are usually called the natural keys, spanning seven alphabetical letters, A through G. The symbol that represents a natural note is ♮. (If the natural sign is omitted, musicians still assume the pitch is natural, but sometimes the symbol is included for clarification.) The signs # (sharp) and ♭(flat) indicate that a given pitch, such as A♮, has been raised or lowered, respectively, by a half step. So the next note to the right of A on the keyboard is A#. But, you can also look at that same A # key as being a lower neighbor of the key to its right—in other words, if you move a half step to the left from B♮, the same A # key can also be called B♭, since it is half a step (one key) below the B.
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Pitch on a Staff
Music notation uses a five-line staff as a type of a ladder to indicate pitches. Each line or space on the staff is assigned to a letter of the musical alphabet—but the assignment can vary, depending on the clef symbol at the left-hand end of the staff. “Clef” comes from the French word “key,” and each clef symbol is the “key” for reading the lines and spaces of the staff. Each clef focuses on one line of the staff; musicians can then figure out the remaining lines and spaces based on that one reference point. There are three main clefs in use today: this diagram shows the C clef as alto and tenor.
Music notation uses a five-line staff as a type of a ladder to indicate pitches. Each line or space on the staff is assigned to a letter of the musical alphabet—but the assignment can vary, depending on the clef symbol at the left-hand end of the staff. “Clef” comes from the French word “key,” and each clef symbol is the “key” for reading the lines and spaces of the staff. Each clef focuses on one line of the staff; musicians can then figure out the remaining lines and spaces based on that one reference point. There are three main clefs in use today: this diagram shows the C clef as alto and tenor.
Pitch on the Grand Staff
In piano music, two bracketed staves (the plural of “staff”) are used, known as the grand staff. In general, the left hand plays the music notated on the lower staff, usually containing a bass clef, and the right hand plays the notes written on the upper staff, which usually contains a treble clef. Figure 2 shows a grand staff with the pitches labeled that correspond to the white notes and black notes on the keyboard. (Notice, too, that the sharp or flat symbol follows the letter when we refer to pitches in prose—e.g., F#, A♭, etc.—but the symbol precedes the note head when we write pitches on a staff.)
In piano music, two bracketed staves (the plural of “staff”) are used, known as the grand staff. In general, the left hand plays the music notated on the lower staff, usually containing a bass clef, and the right hand plays the notes written on the upper staff, which usually contains a treble clef. Figure 2 shows a grand staff with the pitches labeled that correspond to the white notes and black notes on the keyboard. (Notice, too, that the sharp or flat symbol follows the letter when we refer to pitches in prose—e.g., F#, A♭, etc.—but the symbol precedes the note head when we write pitches on a staff.)
Scales and Intervals
In the Western tradition, most composers choose a set of seven pitches as the basis for a piece of music. When arranged in ascending order, the seven pitches are known as a diatonic sale, and the pitches fall into one of four different patterns (major and three varieties of minor). The C major scale is perhaps the most common scale; the piano keys needed for this scale are shown in Figure 3. When we are talking about the distance between the keys, it is called an interval. Remember that the distance between any two adjacent keys on the piano is a half step (or semitone), which is the smallest interval that is normally used in Western music.
In the Western tradition, most composers choose a set of seven pitches as the basis for a piece of music. When arranged in ascending order, the seven pitches are known as a diatonic sale, and the pitches fall into one of four different patterns (major and three varieties of minor). The C major scale is perhaps the most common scale; the piano keys needed for this scale are shown in Figure 3. When we are talking about the distance between the keys, it is called an interval. Remember that the distance between any two adjacent keys on the piano is a half step (or semitone), which is the smallest interval that is normally used in Western music.
Melody
A melody is a series of successive pitches perceived by the ear to form a coherent whole. Only one pitch occurs at a time in a melody; if two pitches occur together, you have either harmony or counterpoint. Most melodies use the seven notes of a single scale. The song “Happy Birthday,” which is in the major mode, uses the scale degrees shown in the box at the bottom of this page.
It follows the same scale degrees whether you use the C major, F major, E♭ major, A major, or any of the fifteen major scales. You can transpose the melody Happy Birthday to any major key by beginning the same pattern of intervals on a different note, and it will remain the same melody.
LEARN MORE ABOUT MELODY HERE
A melody is a series of successive pitches perceived by the ear to form a coherent whole. Only one pitch occurs at a time in a melody; if two pitches occur together, you have either harmony or counterpoint. Most melodies use the seven notes of a single scale. The song “Happy Birthday,” which is in the major mode, uses the scale degrees shown in the box at the bottom of this page.
It follows the same scale degrees whether you use the C major, F major, E♭ major, A major, or any of the fifteen major scales. You can transpose the melody Happy Birthday to any major key by beginning the same pattern of intervals on a different note, and it will remain the same melody.
LEARN MORE ABOUT MELODY HERE
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Contour
All melodies have a contour, or profile. A conjunct melody moves smoothly, in stepwise motion, that is, in mostly half steps and whole steps. “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” is a familiar tune using conjunct motion. Apart from “merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily,” all the intervals are whole steps and half steps. A disjunct melody, on the other hand, contains proportionally more leaps (intervals larger than a major second). “The Star Spangled Banner,” for instance, uses far more leaps than steps, so it is disjunct. There is even a melodic leap of a major tenth (equivalent to sixteen half steps) between “gleam-ing” and “...and the rockets’ red glare.”
Another way to describe a melody’s contour is by direction. Melodies may ascend, descend, or move in a wavelike manner. “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” ascends to the first “merrily,” then mainly descends to the end. A very common contour for melodies is that of an arch, ascending at the beginning, reaching a climactic high point, and descending toward the end. Contour is normally described in general terms. Exact intervals and pitches are named when more precision is needed.
All melodies have a contour, or profile. A conjunct melody moves smoothly, in stepwise motion, that is, in mostly half steps and whole steps. “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” is a familiar tune using conjunct motion. Apart from “merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily,” all the intervals are whole steps and half steps. A disjunct melody, on the other hand, contains proportionally more leaps (intervals larger than a major second). “The Star Spangled Banner,” for instance, uses far more leaps than steps, so it is disjunct. There is even a melodic leap of a major tenth (equivalent to sixteen half steps) between “gleam-ing” and “...and the rockets’ red glare.”
Another way to describe a melody’s contour is by direction. Melodies may ascend, descend, or move in a wavelike manner. “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” ascends to the first “merrily,” then mainly descends to the end. A very common contour for melodies is that of an arch, ascending at the beginning, reaching a climactic high point, and descending toward the end. Contour is normally described in general terms. Exact intervals and pitches are named when more precision is needed.
Range and Register
Every instrument (including the human voice) has a range of possible pitches that it is capable of producing. In order to indicate exactly which A, B, or C#, etc., is being played or discussed, each pitch is numbered from the bottom of the grand staff up: C1 through B1/C♭1, followed by C2 through B2/C♭2, and so on. A viola’s range (C3 to E6) is higher and slightly narrower than a cello’s (C2 to A5). The high, middle, and low parts of an instrument’s range are often called the high, middle, or low register; in “Ol’ Man River” (Listening Example 2), the singer drops into a very low register.
Every instrument (including the human voice) has a range of possible pitches that it is capable of producing. In order to indicate exactly which A, B, or C#, etc., is being played or discussed, each pitch is numbered from the bottom of the grand staff up: C1 through B1/C♭1, followed by C2 through B2/C♭2, and so on. A viola’s range (C3 to E6) is higher and slightly narrower than a cello’s (C2 to A5). The high, middle, and low parts of an instrument’s range are often called the high, middle, or low register; in “Ol’ Man River” (Listening Example 2), the singer drops into a very low register.
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